APPENDIX A

                 LIST OF TOWNS AND VILLAGES VISITED AND MEETINGS HELD

APPENDIX B  

                                               LIST OF INSTITUTIONS VISITED  

APPENDIX  C

LIST OF WRITTEN SUBMISSIONS    

ORGANIZATIONS/GROUPS  

                                                                APPENDIX D  

                                     LIST OF RESEARCH AND POLICY STUDIES  

Alao, A and Kandjii-Murangi, I.  A Survey of Private English Medium Primary Schools. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Atta, J. K. and Gyekye, A. B.  A Study on Labour Market Trends and Implications for Education and Training In Botswana. Gaborone: University of Botswana, 1993.  

Bantsi - Chimidza, L. with Mbunge, J. Analysis of Policy Options for Transition Rates from Junior Secondary to Senior Secondary Education. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Dodds, T. Report on a Feasibility Study on the Establishment of a Distance Education College for Botswana. Cambridge: International Extension College, 1993.  

Jefferis, K. R. The Nature of Botswana's Economy in the Next Twenty-Five Years and the Implications for Education and Training. Gaborone: University of Botswana, 1993  

Mautle, G; Konesapillai, K. and Lungu, E. The Quality of Primary School Completers and Its Implications for Form 1 Organisation and Teaching. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Mogome - Ntsatsi, K. and Tau, O. Situation Analysis of the Street Children in the Urban Centres of Botswana. Gaborone: UNICEF, 1993.  

Monau, R. M; Mmolai, S. K. and O'Mara, F. R. Analysis of Policy Options for Preschool Education in Botswana. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Moorad, F. R; Dambe, M. R. and Maravanyika, O. E. Analysis of Policy Options for Vocationalisation of Basic Education in Botswana. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Mudariki, T. and Weeks, S. Vocationalisation of Senior Secondary Education. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Nyathi-Ramohobo, L and Prophet, R. Analysis of Policy Options for Educational Research. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Obok Opok, A with Boni, P. Report on The Evaluation of Artisan and Technician Training in Botswana. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Pendaeli, J; Ogunniyi, M. B. and Mosothwane, M. Strategies for the Improvement of Performance in Science and Mathematics at all Levels in the Education System of Botswana. Gaborone: Botswana Educational Research Association, 1993.  

Winter, S. Costing of Recommendations of the National Commission on Education,  Gaborone, May 1993.  

APPENDIX E  

                                                      LIST OF COUNTRIES VISITED  

APPENDIX   F  

LANGUAGE POLICY:       A MINORITY REPORT  

There was a minority view that strongly disagreed with the majority view on issues pertaining to language education policy.  Specifically, the areas of concern are:  

(i)         the lack of a detailed exposition on policy guidelines that would address language education policy at three levels, namely, the Official Language Policy (OLP), the National Language Policy (NLP) and the Local Language Policy (LLP) levels..  

(ii)        the contradiction between the arguments adduced for the use of the mother tongue (used inter-changeably with "dominant language") at pre-primary and those put forward for abolishing Setswana as a medium of instruction in Primary.  

(iii)       the inconsistency between the downgrading of Setswana at the primary stage of the education system in preference to English for reasons of commercial interest and the concerns expressed later about having to enhance employment opportunities for Setswana specialists.  The abolition of Setswana as a medium of instruction would run counter to the encouragement of greater interest by students in the Setswana language.  

(iv)       the total absence in the report of any reference to the considerable body of evidence from other countries in support of the use of the dominant language at the primary stage of the education system.  

(v)        The lack of a clear appreciation that the single most important factor in the education of a child is the quality of the teacher and not principally the language of instruction.  

What follows addresses our perceived short-comings in the Report, as far as the issue of language is concerned.  

Language policy in general, and not just language policy as it relates to education, does not exist in Botswana.  A general language policy would encompass issues relating to Education policy, Cultural policy, Social Services, language development, institutional framework, role of language in the economy and research.   The multi-lingual nature of the Botswana society, its historical development before and after the attainment of independence, economic considerations, the international relations and the nature of its ethnic composition would suggest that a language policy based on the principles of  Democracy, Self-reliance and Unity should recognise three levels viz, Official language policy, National language policy and Local language policy.  

The Official Language Policy (OLP) would mainly affect the English language.   The National Language Policy (NLP) would be about Setswana and the prerogatives to be conferred on it.  The Local Language Policy (LLP) would address itself to the nations minority languages, their structural development, their role in the country's educational system and their place in the cultural development.  

The existing policy is that English is the official language and Setswana the National language.  There is no clear expression of the status of other local languages.  The suggested three levels of language policy formulation seeks to capture the prevailing paradigm, as inferred from practice.  

National Language Policy  

The current policy on language as it relates to education, especially the use and development of Setswana, has its origins from the 1st National Commission on Education of 1977.  The 1st Commission noted that the normal practice prior to 1977 was for Setswana to be used as a medium of instruction in the first two or three years of primary education.  In the subsequent years English was used as a medium of instruction, and Setswana continued to be taught as a subject after the transition to English as a medium of instruction.  

The 1st Commission felt strongly that the prevailing practice discriminated against Setswana and considered that, as a national language, Setswana ought to be given "a prominent place ... in the education system".  The 1st Commission therefore recommended, inter alia, that:  

i.                 Setswana should be the medium of instruction in the 1st four years of schooling.  

ii.                English should continue to be taught as a subject from Std 1.  

iii.               The transition to English as a medium of instruction should take place at Std 5.  

iv.               The time allocated to Setswana in the school time-table should be increased.  

v.                Setswana as a subject should have the same status as English in the PSLE and in the selection process for secondary schools.  Non-Setswana speaking children should be compensated by an adjustment in the scores.  

The 1st Commission further proposed a host of other actions in  support of Setswana, such as curriculum development for Junior Secondary and Teacher Training Colleges, development of and research into Setswana, provision of improved instructional material and annual awards for story writing and essay competition.  

As a follow-up to the recommendation of the 1st Commission, a National Policy on Education was promulgated in 1977.  The National Policy on Education accepted most of the recommendations of the 1st Commission.  It specifically provided, inter alia, for:  

i.                 Setswana as a core subject at both intermediate and senior secondary schools, with focus on Tswana languages and culture.  

ii.                The strengthening of the teacher training courses to enable all teachers to gain a sound foundation in Setswana.  

iii.               Literacy first in Setswana and then in English.  

In 1979, the National Setswana Language Committee (NSLC) was established to be replaced by the National Setswana Language Council in 1985.  The latter is responsible for monitoring the current usage and development of Setswana as a language and the means by which cultural heritage is nurtured and preserved.  Other developments relating to Setswana as a national language have taken place since the adoption of the National Policy on Education in 1977.  Significant amongst these was the commissioning in 1991 of a consultancy by Dr. Baral on the "Improvement of the Training of Teachers of Setswana", the objective of which was  

"to analyse the present Setswana programmes in the Primary Teacher Training Colleges, the Colleges of Education and the University of Botswana for preparing teachers of Setswana and to propose steps which may be taken to improve Setswana instruction".    

Baral's findings were, inter alia, that:  

i.     the school syllabuses, although they address important aspects relating to the development of the language and preservation of Tswana culture, they provide "no clear linkage between the use of the language and current cultural life of the nation ...".  The syllabuses are written entirely in English.  

ii.    at the Teacher training level the programmes were consistent with the expectations of the MoE in that they are designed to "develop a commitment to the promotion of the Setswana language and culture as an  important unifying force in the nation".  

iii.   in the field of teaching methods and materials there is a lack of text books on the methodology of teaching Setswana.  

Baral went on to propose a set of recommendations directed at Teacher Training Institutions, MoE and NSLC:  

i.                 The Teacher Training institutions were to improve the teaching of Setswana; formulate suggestions, for consideration by MoE and NSLC, on the increased use of Setswana as a means of communication and the improvement of the low prestige of Setswana among students teachers and parents.  

ii.                The MoE was to provide opportunities for Setswana teachers to visit other African countries and to address the "various issues concerning the language education policy in the charge to the National Commission on Education which will be convened during the NDP 7".  

iii.               Apart from the Standard Orthography, the NSLC should examine the expansion of the Setswana vocabulary to enable it to act effectively as a means of communication in contemporary society, leading to its use in "the professions, in secondary education and in academic programmes at the UB".  The NSLC should encourage scholarly research by Batswana in the areas of the "diversity of language varieties spoken in the country, the process of language change, first and second language acquisition ... and the history of the Setswana language ...".  

Bilingual Education Theory  

In written submissions to the Commission, BERA poses the following questions, in the context of Setswana as a national language:  

°                 "What are the problems arising from the current language policy?  

°                 What does the literature say about such problems within the Botswana context?  

°                 And finally, what recommendations could we provide to the Commission in this area?"  

The BERA submission puts forward a Bilingual Education Theory that postulates "three basic models of bilingual education operating around the world", namely the Transitional,  Maintenance and Enrichment Models.  Only the first two will be described.  

The Transitional Model is one where the child's first language is used as a medium of instruction with conversion to a second language later.  The Maintenance Model involves the initial use of the child's first language and a second language added later for instructional purposes.  

It is indicated that the Transitional Model is the one in use in the Botswana education system.  The characteristic features of this model are "underlying goals of language shift, cultural assimilation and social incorporation ...".  Thus the model in operation in Botswana "is assimilating all Batswana into the English culture (thus) negating the value of Setswana language and culture" and is therefore inimical to the objectives of the NSLC which is "concerned about ... the loss of the Setswana language and culture".  

BERA argues that the Maintenance Model is the appropriate one for Botswana in that it is the one that will "sustain the vigorous and long-term use of an ethnic language ...".  The point being made is that Setswana should be the medium of instruction initially, with English added later so that both languages serve as instructional tools throughout the education system.  The Maintenance Model is consistent with the objectivesa of the NSLC and the MoE.  

Regarding language teaching, BERA submits that "teachers are not trained to teach language skills to a satisfactory level" and that "there is not a generally accepted methodology for teaching Setswana".  Regarding language status, it is argued that English occupies a higher status than Setswana because the former is "taught for socio-economic advancement" whilst the latter is taught for "cultural identity and unity and early concept formation".  Thus English has an economic value and opens up opportunities for employment, Setswana does not.  

The BERA submission offers a number of recommendations in support of the foregoing technical considerations:  Briefly:  

i.                 At the policy level, it is recommended that Setswana be (a)  declared an official language;  (b)  it should be a passing requirement for professional courses; (c)  all minority languages should be recognised as distinct entities and their development encouraged.  

ii.                At the research level, there is need for systematic research on language issues, especially those affecting minority groups, so that the development of policy can be influenced by objective facts.  

The use of the dominant language as a medium of instruction in those countries, which like Botswana, have more than one local language, is prevalent.  No evidence has been adduced in the  countries visited by the Commission, to suggest that the use of the mother tongue or dominant language at the initial stages of the primary cycle, 'a la' the Transition model, has lead either to the decline in educational standards generally or lack of proficiency in the English language in particular.  On the contrary, the professional view is that early concept formation are best provided in the mother tongue.  

The Commission is aware of the concerns that have been expressed about the quality of teachers at primary.  Their lack of proficiency in English has often led to Setswana being used as a medium of instruction beyond Std 4.  This has often resulted in primary school leavers having a poor standard of English.  Based on the lessons learned elsewhere, an appropriate response to this situation would be to improve the quality of teaching by upgrading the standard and quality of teachers at primary level, as the use of Setswana, per se, cannot be implicated in the poor standard of English of primary school leavers.  

It is obvious from the foregoing that the issue of language policy is of great concern to educationists and the public at large.    As far as issues of language, as they affect the system of education at all levels are concerned, the following are identified:  

°                 The role of Setswana as a medium of instruction in the nations education system and the effect that this has had on the quality of education.  

°                 The status of Setswana as a national language and its standing vis-a-vis English as the official language.  

°                 The balance between preservation of culture and the promotion of national unity thorough the national language and the socio-economic dictates that lays emphasis elsewhere.  

°                 The current language policy is not clearly defined, but merely inferred from its application in the educational field.  

°                 The current policy does not cater for minority languages at all levels of the education system.  There is need to recognise that Botswana is a multi-lingual society.  

°                 Setswana has a very low status and is lowly regarded, as it provides very limited opportunities for employment.  

°                 The quality of Setswana teaching is very low and no "generally accepted methodology for teaching Setswana" exists.  

                   °        The NSLC is often referred to as the body charged with responsibility for the preservation, promotion and development of Setswana language and culture.  Its TOR, however,  are strictly about the usage of the language and are silent on the cultural aspects.  The Council is merely advisory and has no executive powers.  

°                 The prerogatives to be conferred on Setswana as a national language are unclear.  What does the "national" character of the language imply?  

°                 The need for a National Book Policy to develop the culture of reading in Setswana and other local languages.  

Local Language Policy  

The foregoing is largely concerned with language policy as it relates to Setswana, i.e. at the level of the National Language Policy.  

A legitimate concern that has been expressed by educationists is that concerning the language policy on the numerous local  languages in the country.  As stated earlier, no official policy exists on local languages.  The Commission can only address this matter as it relates to education policy and within the limits of the third level of the policy on language, i.e the Local Language Policy.  

It is imperative that a policy on local languages be developed.  In terms of education, that policy would need to address, inter alia:  the role of the local languages in the educational system, especially in the initial stages of the school years  

ii.                the development of the languages from a pedagogical standpoint  

iii.               the employment of appropriate bilingual teaching methodologies  

iv.               the training of teachers in bilingual teaching methods  

v.    the issue of cultural expression and preservation through the use of local languages  

vi.               literary policy at the level of local languages  

vii.              Text Book policy on local languages.  

This is not an exhaustive list, but an indication  of the areas that could be covered by language policy on education.  

A point that needs to be explained is that concerning the appropriate language of instruction during the first years of schooling.    Linguists contend that concepts are best understood in the mother-tongue or the dominant language of the community.   A child is usually exposed to three situations in the use of language:  Home, the community and the school.  The appropriate language of instruction at school is the dominant language of the community.  Thus where the mother tongue is also the dominant language, then the mother tongue would be the appropriate one to use if concepts are to be clearly formed and understood.  Where the dominant language is other than the mother tongue, the dominant language applies - without significant adverse effects on the education of the child.  Hence the need to carefully survey each locality to determine the appropriate language of instruction.  This approach is necessary if the minority language speakers are not to be disadvantaged.  

Institutional Framework  

One organ that could be charged with promoting languages is a Botswana Language(s) Council, not just a council for Setswana.  A Council that is not only staffed by qualified personnel, but one that has solid leadership, coherent structure, stature and power to enforce its decisions.  Ideally, such a council should be independent, with line function to the Office of the President, since this is the office that coordinates policy implementation in all government sectors; and the various sectors may have language policies peculiar to them and not to the rest of the other sectors.  

Research  

If policy is to be effective, it must be informed by sound research.  

The major goal of research into language policy should be to examine the historical basis of policies and to make explicit the mechanisms by which policy decisions serve or undermine particular political and economic interests.  Language planning institutions are inseparable from the political economy, and therefore changes in institutional organisation and manpower may be necessary for the problem to be tackled.  Connections between language and social structure have to be investigated.  A number of variables would have to be considered; but this pre-supposes systematic studies into the language situation in Botswana.  

It is necessary to carry out a country-wide survey to determine which languages are spoken where, by whom and in what numbers.  It would also be informative to focus on prevailing patterns of  language shift or maintenance.  We should identify dominant languages and the regions they cover.  Of course such studies should be guided by language specialists.  This type of information is necessary before any firm policy decisions can be made at general language policy level and at the various levels of usage such as in education.  To make any firm recommendations about the implementation of policy relating to the use of minority languages in education would be premature at present.  Obviously a number of models are available, but first we need fundamental changes at the general policy level.  

Conclusion:  

It is our considered view that the foregoing captures more clearly the main features of a language education  policy than is contained in the Commission's Report.  In our view it also harmonises the various sections of the Report pertaining to language policy and language usage.  

We therefore conclude as follows:  

1.                That language policy be addressed at three levels viz Official Language Policy, National Language Policy and Local Language Policy, following the guidelines given in this paper.  

2.                That as far as the medium of instruction is concerned, the Maintenance Model should be adopted.  

3.                Appropriate language teaching methodologies should be developed and teachers trained to teach language skills.  

4.                The standard and quality of teachers and the quality of teaching at primary should be substantially improved, in order to overcome the poor standard of English and the poor performance at the PSLE.  

5.                That Setswana should be declared an official language along side English 

6.                That the minority languages should be recognised and their development and role in the nations education system encouraged.

7.                That the proposed Botswana Language(s) Council be enhanced in stature, empowered to enforce its decisions and be mandated to address all aspects relating to language policy and its implementation.

SIGNED:

PROF. SERARA SEGARONA KUPE                                                                 JOHN BODUTU SHAW DIPHAHA